	Teachings of Buddha for Solid, Plain Language
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Solid Language
- Solid Language Takes a Clear Mind
- Proper Use of Language: Buddhist Standards
Details

Solid Language

The main topic on this page is plain English, and guidlines related to it. There are many sides to scientific skills and writing needs, and writing needs in general. It pays to be polite. Expressing and presenting ideas well enough are sides to be learnt too - an ongoing project that matters.

Writing adjustments

Fig. 1: Four adjustment levels of writing

Figure 1 divides planned, factual writing into four levels, for convenience. The idea is that some sides to writing take more than others, and that the easiest parts are those of fixing periods, wordings, and phrases. There is much counsel on those sides to writing on this page, and also a few sidelights into values expressed in writing, highlighted by some teachings of Buddha.

Solid Language Takes a Clear Mind

There are many sides to solid language, many are above just being plain and accurate. Being truthful is one. Being considerate is another. Clarity is fine too.

Being scholarly and scientific suits Buddhism, which encourages rational takes and does not depend on blind beliefs. It is called sober, realistic, undogmatic, compatible with science. But Buddhism goes far beyond the goals of basic science too; it aims at helping happy, successful living on and up, aiming at complete liberation (awakening).

Test things in terms of cause and effect, teaches Buddha. Whatever is unskilful, leading to harm and ill, should be abandoned; whatever is skilful, leading to happiness and peace, should be pursued. You can apply such guidance to things you do. One quick test may not do for a whole life, but you can keep at it to be better able to discern what is worth including in your lifestyle.

Over 2500 years ago Buddha formed many such principles that regularly apply. He normally does not seek to persuade anyone. In fact, he talks against such bravado attempts. Also, his doctrine of Right Speech (part of the Noble Middle Way) posits that using language in a moral, non-degrading way is not to be left out. Third, many of Buddha's conclusions are based on agreeable first principles. In his outstanding Kalama Sutta he also advocates that we examine the logical and illogical reasons mustered by others or ourselves and sources very well, and to our advantage. "Do not believe a thing wilfully or blindly; make sure as best you can," is a key message. Another is not to trust authorities wholly just because they are authorities. Many persons confuse truths with statements by authority figures, and that is being quite blind: One is not to trust appearances blindly and foolishly either. I suggest there is a better way: [Evidence]

Further, Buddha stressed the need for good language skills, and the value of abstaining from foul language. Being skilful is a significant side to his general teachings. Express with aplomb, then.

Proper Use of Language: Buddhist Standards

Right Speech is abstaining from lying; abstaining from tale-bearing; abstaining from harsh language; abstaining from vain talk.
The truthful one avoids and abstains from lying, being reliable, worthy of confidence. He speaks the truth, and is devoted to the truth.
The truthful one is not a deceiver of men. At a meeting, or among people, or in the midst of his relatives, or in a society, or in the king's court, and called upon and asked as a witness to tell what he knows.
The truthful one never knowingly speaks a lie, not for the sake of his own advantage, or for no other person's advantage, or for the sake of any advantage whatever.
The truthful man of concord abstains from harsh language. He speaks gentle words that are soothing and aim at the heart, courteous and dear.
Let no evil words escape from your lips.
Penetrate others with dear thoughts that are wide and deep enough.
Speak at the right time, in accordance with facts. Tell what is useful, tell about the law [dharma: law, teachings] and the discipline. Speech at the right moment, accompanied by arguments, moderate and full of sense, is a treasure: It is called right speech.

Buddha taught by speaking. What he said about speech, applies well to written communications too. Some vital principles of science are lined up with his teachings. But for the rest of this page we deal with common, accepted technicalities only.

Details

Plain English Guidelines of 2009

Style and grammar

Over the whole document, make the average sentence length 15 to 20 words.
Use words your readers are likely to understand.
Use only as many words as you really need ["writing tight"].
Prefer the active voice unless there's a good reason for using the passive.
Use clear, crisp, lively verbs to express the actions in your document, and avoid using noun strings.
Use vertical lists to break up complicated text.
Put your points positively when you can.
Reduce cross-references to the a minimum.
Put accurate punctuation at the heart of your writing.
Remember the average reading age of the population: about 13 years.
Avoid being enslaved by writing myths.
Try to avoid sexist usage.
Use good grammar even if you don't know hundreds of grammatical terms.
In letters and emails, avoid fusty first sentences and formula finishes.

Preparing and planning

Plan before you write.

Organizing the information

Organize your material in away that helps readers to grasp the important information early and to navigate through the document easily ["using reader-centred structure"].
Consider different ways of setting out your information.

Management of writing

Manage colleagues' writing carefully and considerately to boost their morale and effectiveness.

Plain English for specific purposes: emails, instructions, the Web, legal documents, and low-literacy readers

Take as much care with e-mail as you would with the rest of your writing.
Devote special effort to producing lucid and well-organized instructions.
Don't waffle on the Web – put the big news early and make the style and structure punchy.
Apply plain English techniques to legal documents such as insurance policies, car-hire agreements, laws, and wills.
For people with low literacy, cut out the fine details, be brief, and test your document with the real experts – the readers.

Layout

Use clear layout to present your plain words in an easily accessible way.

- from Martin Cutts: Oxford Guide to Plain English, 3rd ed. (Oxford UP, 2009, p. xxvi-xxvii).

The guidelines of the third edition differ a bit from the guidelines given in the second edition, and from the first edition as well. The title of the book was changed with its second edition (2004, where the survey of guidelines are placed on p. 17-18). Compare the Plain English Guide (p 9-10). Added guidelines reflect changing media and adaptations to email writing and Web presentations. There is, suprisingly perhaps, some waffling in several sections of the last two editions.

Drop "insecurity padding"

Prefer a short word to a long one ... unless the longer word is better, and a single word to a phrase if brevity makes for clarity. [Scu 56 - See also Cop (Sir Ernest Gowers, The Complete Plain Words, 1973)]

Introductory and connecting phrases which can usually be deleted without altering the meaning of the sentence:

From this point of view, it is relevant to mention that ...

In regard to ... , when we consider ..., it is apparent that ...

As far as ... is concerned, it may be noted that ...

It is appreciated that ... in considering ...

It is of interest to note that ... of course ...

In order to keep the problem in perspective we would like to emphasize that ... there is no doubt that ... not least of these ...

In conclusion, in relation to ..., it was found that ...

From this information it can be seen that ... in so far as ...

It is known from an actual investigation that ... as follows:

This report is a summary of the results of an enquiry into ... which, as you may remember, ... with respect to ...

It has been established that, essentially, ... in the case of ...

The evidence presented in this report supports the view that ... in the field of ... for your information ... in actual fact ... with reference to ... in the last analysis

[From Scu 39]

Circumlocution: the use of many words where few would do better

Circumlocution	Better English
in virtually all sectors of the	almost everywhere
maintain a high degree of activity	move about a great deal
in black and white only	in black and white
if at all possible	if possible
peer groups	equals
I myself would hope	I hope
I would have said	I think
you are in fact quite correct	you are right
mechanisms of a physiological nature	physiological mechanisms
on an experimental basis	by experiment
on a dawn to dusk basis	fram dawn to dusk
on a regular basis	regularly
working towards a unanimous situation	trying to agree
by any actual person in particular	by anyone in particular
to show the same high level of application	to kep trying
an oral presentation	a talk
the reading and learning process	reading and learning
outside the kidney itself	outside the kidney
several are known to influence	several ... influence
not longer than 20 000 to 25 000 words in length	no more than 25 000 words
measures on purely local terms	local action
a maximum depth of ten metres	ten metres deep
ten metres in length	ten metres long
over a period of the order of a decade	for about ten years
for a further period of fifteen years	for another fifteen years
the roads were limited in mileage	there were few roads
they utilize for sustenance	they eat
during the month of April	in April
at the pre-school level	the under fives
on a theoretical level	in theory
on the educational front	in education
in the classroom situation	in schools
in the school environment	in schools
They are without any sanitary arrangements whatsoever.	There is no sanitation.
... in establishments of a workshop rather factory character	... in workshops ...
An increased appetite was manifested by the rats	All the rats ate more
How we speak depends on what speech communities we are actually operating in at the time.	How we speak depends on the people we are with.
It consists essentially of two parts.	It has two parts.
We are in the process of making	We are making
Degree courses are in the process of development.	Degree courses are being planned.
Experiments are in progress to assess the possibility of using	We are trying to use
It was observed in the course of the demonstration that	We observed ...
There is really somewhat of an obligation upon us	We should ...
The committee was obviously cognisant of the problem.	The committee was aware of the problem.
An account of the methods used and the results obtained has been given by ...	Their methods and results are described by
In no case did any of the seedlings develop lesions.	None of the seedlings developed lesions.
Such is by no means the case.	This is not so.
... proved fatal in most cases.	... killed most of them.
Even when the class is engaged in reading and writing activities	Even when the children are reading and writing ...
At the other end of the educational spectrum	In primary schools

[See Scu 70-71]

Circumlocution: some phrases which are commonly used when one word would do better

Circumlocution	Better English
In view of the fact that	because
on account of the fact that	as
if it is assumed that	if
in spite of the fact that	although
a sufficient number of	enough
at this precise moment in time	now
at that point in time	then
a greater length of time	longer
during the time that	while
on a regular basis	regularly
it may well be that	perhaps
with the exception of	except
using a combination of	from
of a reversible nature	reversible
which goes. under the name of	called
with the result that	so
in all other cases	otherwise
are found to be in agreement with	agree
carry out experiments	experiment
conduct an investigation into	investigate
bring to a cenclusion	finish
arrive at a decision	decide
make an adjustment to	adjust
make an examination of	examine
undertake a study of	study
take into consideration	consider
afford an opportunity to	allow
in conjunction with	with
after this has been done	then
on two separate occasions	twice
the question as to whether	whether
it is apparent therefore that	hence
in view of the foregoing circumstances	therefore
give positive encouragement to	encourage
have been shown to be	are
try out	try
open up	open
aimed at	for
count up	count
check on	check
later on	later
prior to	before
seal off	seal
in between	between
inasmuch as	since
a number of	several
proved to be	were
in regard to	about
in all cases	always
in order that	to
in most cases	usually
at a later date	later
a proportion of	some
a great deal of	much
at an early date	soon
in the nature of	like
not infrequently	often
in the event that	if
to say nothing of	and
has an ability to	can
a small number of	few
a large number of	many
by the same token	similarly
for the purpose of	for
in the vicinity of	near
in connection with	about
until such time as	until
spell out in depth	explain
in this day and age	now
at the present time	now

[From Scu 72]

Avoid the unnecessary qualification of words

Incorrect	Correct
absolutely perfect	perfect
the actual number	the number
an actual investigation	an investigation
not actually true	untrue
almost unique	not unique
almost perfect	imperfect
by means of	by or using
a categorical denial	a denial
completely surrounded	surrounded
conclusive proof	proof
cylindrical in shape	cylindrical
deliberately chosen	chosen
an essential condition	a condition
facing up to	facing
they are in fact	they are
few in number	few
green in colour	green
a positive identification	an identification
small in size	small
streamlined in appearance	streamlined
stunted in growth	stunted
swampy in character	swampy
quite impossible	impossible
quite obvious	obvious
hard evidence	evidence
real problems	problems
realistic justification	justification
they really are	they are
really dangerous	dangerous
the smallest possible minimum	the minimum
valid information	information
very necessary	necessary
very relevant	relevant
very true	true
wholly new	new

[Source: Scu 61]

Express writing

Avoid if you can	Usually prefer
alternate	[maybe the word you need is 'alternative']
anticipate	expect
approximately	about
are of the same opinion	agree - see 'woolly words' below
as already stated	[omit]
as can be seen from Fig. 1, growth is more rapid	growth is more rapid (Fig. 1), or Fig. I shows that growth is more rapid
as far as our/my observations are concerned, they show	my/our observations show
as far as this species is concerned, it	this species is
as follows:-	[omit 'as follows' and the dash; the colon is enough]
as for the experiments, they are	these experiments are
as of now	now, from now on
as shown in Fig. 11	Fig. 11 shows that
as regards this species, it	this species is
assist(-ance)	help, aid
at some future time	later
at the present moment, at the present moment in time, at this time	now
author(s), the	I/we
bright red in colour	bright red
case	patient
[check the "colourless" past participles: accomplished, achieved, attained, carried out, conducted, done, effected, experienced, facilitated, given, implemented, indicated, involved, made, obtained, occurred, performed, proceeded, produced, required]	[avoid; use a meaningful verb instead]
commence	begin, start
comparatively	[avoid, unless you are making a real comparison of one item with another]
concerning this effect, it may be borne in mind that	[omit]
conducted inoculation experiments on	inoculated
considerable amount of	much
considerable number/proportion of	many, most
contemporaneous in age	contemporaneous; the same age
created the possibility	made impossible; /enabled (a person); / allowed (an action)
data	facts, results, observations
decreased number of	fewer, less
decreased relative to	less than, lower than
demonstrate	show
due to the fact that	because
during the time that	while
elevated	raised, higher, more
employ	use
encountered	met
encountered frequently (e.g. 'this effect was encountered frequently')	common ('this effect was common')
equally as well	equally well
exhibit; X exhibits good stretch properties	show; X stretches well
fairly	[omit]
fewer in number	fewer
following (the operation)	after (the operation)
for the reason that	because, since
from the standpoint of	according to
goes under the name of	is called
greater/higher number of	more
hospitalize	admit to hospital
if and when	[use one of these prepositions alone]
if conditions are such that - -	if
in a considerable number of cases	often
in all cases	always
in connection with	about, for
increased relative to	more than
in few cases	sometimes, rarely
in excess of	more than, above
in order to	to
in regard to / in relation to / in respect of / in terms of / in the case of / in the context of	[use the appropriate preposition, e.g. in, for, about, with]
in the event that	if
in the present communication	here, in this paper
in this connection the statement may be made that	[omit]
in view of the fact that	since, because
it has long been known that	[omit]
it is apparent, therefore, that	hence, therefore
it is of interest to note that	[omit]
it is often the case that	often
it is possible (probable) that	possibly (probably)
it is this that	this
it may, however, be noted that	nevertheless, but
t may be said that	possibly
it seems to the present writer	I think
it will be seen upon examination of Table 5 that	Table 5 shows that
it would thus appear that	apparently
large number(s) of	many
large proportion of	much, most
lazy in character	lazy
lesser extent, degree	less
level	concentration, content
literature, e.g. It is reported in the literature that	others have reported that
made a count	counted
majority of	most
mental patients	patients with mental disorders
moment in time	time
much	[omit]
multiple	several, different
number of	several, some
of large size	large
of such strength that	so strong that
on the basis of	from, by, because
owing to the fact that	because,
parameter	index, criterion, factor, characteristic, measure, value, variable
pertaining to	on, about
prior to; prior to that time	before; before that
proportion of	some
quite	[omit]
rather	[omit]
regime	regimen
relative	[avoid, unless you are calculating a real quotient]
relative to ('This letter is relative to')	about
respectively	[avoid, unless you are sure you are using the word correctly, as in 'Absorption measurements for cadmium vapour at 50, 70, and 100 nra give cross-sections of 0.7, 0.9, and 1.2 fM2 , respectively.']
reveal	show
sacrifice (experimental animals)	kill
serves the function of being	is
significantly	much, appreciably, definitely [but correct and desirable if statistical tests of significance have been made]
similar in every detail	the same
small numbers of	few
sophisticated	advanced, new, expensive
species in which the hairs are lacking	hairless species
square in shape, square-shaped	square
sufficient number of	enough
subsequent to	after
terminate	end
the test in question	this test
the tests have not as yet	the tests have not
the treatment having been performed,	after treatment
there can be little doubt that this is	this is probably
there is, there are	[often unnecessary: e.g. change 'There is much work being done on . . .' to 'Much work is being done on . . .']
there will always be a miscellany of quality in terms of illustrations	the quality of illustrations will always vary
they are both alike (similar)	they are alike (similar)
throughout the entire area	throughout the area
throughout the whole of the experiment	throughout the experiment
two equal halves	halves
upon	on
using	[test whether it is an unattached participle; if so, try 'by', with,' 'by means of']
utilize, utilization	use
very	[omit]
while	although
with reference to	about
with regard to	in, to
[woolly words: area, character, conditions, field, level, nature, problem, process, situation, structure, system]	[avoid: change to more precise words]

[From Oco 93-98]

Prefer a short word to a long word if the short word is more appropriate

Longwinded	Prefer this
accomplish	do
additional	extra
anticipate	expect
assistance	help
simplistic	simple
application	use
breakthrough	discovery
commence	begin
concerning	about
conjecture	guess
consequently	so
considerable	much
construct	build
demonstrate	show
encounter	meet
excepting	except
exhibit	show
fabricate	build
firstly	first
forward	send
hypothesise	suggest
image	reputation
indication	sign
individual	person
individuals	people
kindly	please
methodology	methods
modification	change
partially	partly
preventative	preventive
regarding	about
represent	is
reveal	show
streamlined	shortened
subsequently	later
sufficient	enough
terminate	end
utilise	use
virtually	almost
guidelines	guidance

[See Scu 56]

Phrases that scientists should not use

Introductory phrases	Going against affectation
As is well known	I think
It is evident that	I think
It is perhaps true to say	I do not know what to think
It is generally agreed that	Some people think
All reasonable men think	I believe
For obvious reasons	I have no evidence
There is no doubt that	I am convinced
It is likely that	I have not good enough evidence
As you know	You probably do not know
As you know	This is superfluous
As mentioned earlier	This is superfluous
Tentative conclusions	Possibilities
So far as we know	We could be wrong
It is not necessary to stress the fact	I should not need to tell you
The most typical example	The example that best suits my purpose

[Scu 30]

Jokes

Eliminate quotations. As Ralph W. Emerson said, "I hate quotations . . ."
Verbs HAS to agree with their subjects.
Avoid cliches like the plague. (They're old hat)
No sentence fragments.
One should NEVER generalize.
Comparisons are as bad as cliches.
Understatement is always the absolute best way to put forth earth-shaking ideas.
Puns are for children, not groan readers.
Who needs rhetorical questions?
Exaggeration is a billion times worse than understatement.

Ciw: Collins. Collins Improve Your Writing Skills. Glasgow: HarperCollins, 2009.

Cop: Gowers, Sir Ernest. The Complete Plain Words. 2nd ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973. (An edition from 2004 exists)

Oco: O'Connor, Maeve, and F. Peter Woodford. Writing Scientific Papers in English. London: Pitman Medical, 1978.

Ope: Cutts, Martin. Oxford Guide to Plain English. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. (2nd ed. 2004, and 1st ed., named The Plain English Guide, 1995)

Scw: Barrass, Robert: Scientists Must Write. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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Teachings of Buddha for Solid, Plain Language